When we look systematically at any person's behavior, human nature often leads us to make judgments about that behavior. If we serve as "helping" professionals, we often participate in more formal judgments of behavior. In either case, while it is sometimes easier to identify behaviors judged to be inappropriate and thus in need of decreasing, the most effective use of behavior analysis is to identify appropriate behaviors that a person might need to increase or strengthen.
In many instances, weakening or suppressing inappropriate behavior results in a short-term gain. There is ultimately more to be gained in identifying and reinforcing behaviors in need of strengthening. In essence, persons benefit more from learning what to do, not what not to do. Their learning environments are characterized by a climate of achievement and encouragement rather than defensiveness and fear.
The four lessons in this unit gradually introduce you to the tools necessary for increasing behavior. Lesson 1 provides the basic principles of behavior and reinforcement. Lesson 2 covers the important principles underlying conditioned reinforcement. In Lesson 3, you will learn about how to schedule reinforcement. Finally, Lesson 4 will present four basic procedures that, in addition to or combined with reinforcement, can strengthen behavior.
You should be able to identify and define the following behavioral terms and demonstrate your knowledge of them by accurately completing activities and unit exam essay questions.
Text, Chapter 1; Chapter 2; Chapter 7
1. Behavior. Behavior is any act that can be observed and measured. It is synonymous with the term "response." Seeing and counting acts can help individuals make objective decisions regarding the occurrence of those acts.
Example: An internal state such as "sadness" is not observable and measurable; however, crying is a behavior (observable and measurable) and is frequently associated with sadness.
2. Operant conditioning. In order to alter voluntary behavior, the events that follow should be manipulated. Operant behaviors are emitted voluntarily and can be altered by the arrangement of environmental variables to establish a functional relationship between any voluntary behavior and the events that follow it, that is, its consequences.
Example: When we are consistently late turning in an assignment, we are marked down a grade. There is a definite relationship between the late assignment and the lower grade. By manipulating our behavior (i.e., turning the assignment in on time) we can control the consequence-receiving a lowered grade.
3. Contingency. A contingency specifies the relationship between a behavior and the events that follow it (that is, its consequences). Possible contingencies are to 1) present, 2) withdraw, and 3) withhold events following each occurrence of the behavior to be changed (the target behavior). A commonly used contingency is one that states that after each occurrence of a particular behavior, a certain event should be provided.
Example: A child 1) is given a sticker for finishing his work, 2) loses the sticker for not doing the assignment, or 3) does not get to have recess if his work is not finished by 10:00 a.m.
4. Positive reinforcer. A stimulus which, when presented following a behavior, strengthens that behavior. Something is a reinforcer if it strengthens a behavior. A positive reinforcer is any behavior which, when presented following a behavior, strengthens (increases the likelihood of occurrence of) the behavior.
Example: A smile or praise might be a positive reinforcer for some people.
5. Positive reinforcement. A procedure that strengthens behavior by presenting a stimulus contingent on the occurrence of behavior. Positive reinforcement is a procedure that strengthens a target behavior (increases its frequency, rate, or duration) by arranging for the presentation of a stimulus (a positive reinforcer) following the target behavior.
Example: Jane rewards herself with a dish of ice cream when she works out an extra twenty minutes three times during the week.
6. Negative reinforcer. A negative reinforcer is an unpleasant (aversive) stimulus that, when terminated or reduced as a consequence of a behavior, strengthens that behavior.
Example: When one takes aspirin for a headache and it goes away, the likelihood increases that aspirin will once again be taken to end future headaches. A child's whining may be a negative reinforcer if it increases her parents' likelihood of sending her to her room to end the whining.
7. Negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is a procedure that strengthens a target behavior by arranging for the removal or reduction of an aversive stimulus (a negative reinforcer) as a consequence of that behavior. The critical word is "removal." Whereas in positive reinforcement a stimulus is presented, negative reinforcement requires that a stimulus is removed.
Example: Ted must finish all of his meal or he doesn't get any dessert.
Top of Page | Bottom of Page1. An ongoing aversive stimulus that strengthens the behavior that terminates it.
2. Any act that is observable and measurable.
3. A stimulus that, when presented following a behavior, strengthens that behavior.
4. A procedure that strengthens behavior by presenting a stimulus contingent on the occurrence of the behavior.
5. Strengthening behavior by consequating it with the removal of an aversive stimulus.
6. Controlled by its consequences.
7. The relationship between a behavior and the events that follow it.
Unit I. Activity Options
(following the first four lessons)
Writing Assignment 1: Complete one of the following activities and submit it to your instructor. Be sure to include an Independent Study cover sheet labeled "Writing Assignment 1."
1. Arrange to visit a classroom, and observe the class for fifteen to thirty minutes. Prior to the observation, ask the teacher what types of behavior modification methods he/she uses to increase behavior. Make a reinforcement checklist to keep track of positive and negative reinforcement used in the classroom. Keep track of student/teacher interactions and look for ways the teacher tries to increase behavior. Also note what types of reinforcement the teacher uses--for example, negative reinforcement to avoid a tantrum. Along with your checklist, describe the teacher's stated methods of presenting and withdrawing consequences to increase behavior, and give at least one example of each type of reinforcement used in the classroom. Also list your own suggestions for additional reinforcement interactions (at least three for both positive and negative). Please do not use any real names; change them or use initials.
2. Create a reinforcement assessment. Include a description of the person whose behavior you are assessing and the behavior(s) to be reinforced, and list at least ten positive reinforcers. The reinforcers should include a wide range of items and activities. They should not all be toys or edibles and should be documented as to effectiveness and source of identification. Satiation needs to be considered in preparing your list, as well as how natural and easy the reinforcement is to administer.
3. Identify personal behaviors that you would like to increase (note that eating and smoking are behaviors that usually should be decreased). Describe the behavior you want to increase and list possible reinforcers. Indicate the ones that will be the most reinforcing for changing this behavior and the rationale for using them. Include your reinforcement schedule, how it will be thinned, and the criteria for shifting to a weaker (more intermittent) schedule. (If you would like to run this program, you may wish to select Option 3 in Units III and IV.)
4. Design a token system, including at least six clearly described reinforcers, for each of the following: a class of preschoolers; a class of elementary students; and a class of secondary students. Explain the points that you have assigned for each of the reinforcers to be obtained. The object of this activity is to allow you to identify appropriate reinforcers for different age levels as well as to decide on a hierarchy of reinforcer worth.
Unit I. Sample Examination Essay Questions
The essay questions on the midterm exam require you to use the information learned in this unit to describe how you will handle a particular situation in "the real world." If you are familiar with the following concepts, you should have no difficulty answering the essay questions.